Crawling is one of those milestones in what researchers call "motor development" that parents greet with pride. There are other, equally exciting motor skill developments, such as sitting up and, later, walking. In this article, we will examine the connection between the development of these kinds of motor skills and learning. We will begin by providing a summary of traditional parenting information about crawling and then move to a research-based discussion on the connections between motor and cognitive activity.

According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, babies typically crawl between 7 and 10 months of age. A first stage of crawling is often marked by the baby rocking back and forth on his hands and knees. The muscles in the arms are better developed than those in the legs, which may cause the child to go backward before he can go forward. With practice, the baby figures out that by digging in with his knees and pushing off, he can go forward. Although this pattern is common, many babies never crawl on all fours but use alternate methods such as scooting on their bottoms or creeping (wriggling) along on their bellies. Brazelton (1992) points out that it is a myth that babies who do not crawl are at risk for developing learning problems later on or that they perhaps lack coordination.

Parents can encourage the development of crawling by placing attractive (and safe) objects just out of the baby's reach. As the baby becomes more agile, parents can place the baby on a textured surface to provide him with opportunities to develop tactile (touching) senses (Shelov, 1994).

As the child grows, other gross motor skills begin to develop. Early childhood educators provide 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children with opportunities to develop specific large motor skills such as running, jumping, throwing, and catching. These skills are important for social functioning because many children's games (such as tag, jump rope, or ball games) require these skills (Benelli & Yongue, 1995).

Sporns and Edelman (1993) note that coordinated motor activity makes it possible for all of us (infant, child, or adult) to explore the environment, sample, and attend to sensory stimuli. Motor coordination is not present at birth but develops gradually during the days, weeks, and months after birth. While motor development has often been looked at as a way of marking developmental milestones, researchers recognize it as significant in the development of perceptual and cognitive abilities.

It was once believed that motor development and cognitive development were not closely related. The traditional view of how the brain and muscles worked was simply that "the brain provided the instructions and the body responded" (Lockman & Thelen, 1993, p. 954). Development of motor skills was thought to be primarily a result of maturation (Bushnell & Boudreau, 1993). However, recent research is examining the ways in which motor and cognitive development are intertwined. Researchers in the field of child development now are examining the many levels of brain function and how they influence a motor act such as crawling.

Studies show that an infant will coordinate his or her motor actions with perceptual information and feedback. Bushnell and Boudreau (1993) refer to this process as "on-line" interaction between motor activity, perception, and cognition. In order for perceptual abilities to emerge, an infant must be able to engage in motor activities because he or she "makes available certain information required for the acquisition or operation of the related perceptual abilities" (p. 1017).

However, Bushnell and Boudreau (1993) are careful to point out that the information is not dependent strictly on the development of, for example, crawling ability but can be gained in other ways as well. Although it is not as efficient as crawling, other ways of being mobile (such as being in a walker) can achieve the same end (p. 1007). (Note: We are aware of the recent concerns over leaving children in walkers unattended. It should not be assumed that we advocate the use of walkers; rather, we are providing information about a research study that included a reference to the use of walkers.)

As the media devote more attention to brain development, more and more research on the relationship between acquiring motor skills and learning will make its way to the public eye, and we will continue to report on much of that research here in Parent News.

Sources:

Benelli, Cecelia, & Yongue, Bill. (1995). Supporting young children's motor skill development. Childhood Education, 71(4), 217-220.
Brazelton, T. Berry. (1992). Touchpoints: The essential reference to your child's emotional and behavioral development. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Bushnell, Emily W., & Boudreau, J. Paul. (1993). Motor development and the mind: The potential role of motor abilities as a determinant of aspects of perceptual development. Child Development, 64(4), 1005-1021.

Lockman, Jeffrey J., & Thelen, Esther. (1993). Developmental biodynamics: Brain, body, behavior connections. Child Development, 64(4), 953-959.

Shelov, Steven P. (Ed.). (1994). Caring for your baby and young child: Birth to age 5. New York: Bantam Books.

Sporns, Olaf, & Edelman, Gerald. M. (1993). Solving Bernstein's problem: A proposal for the development of coordinated movement by selection. Child Development, 64(4), 960-981.