Child Care: Is It Good for Children?

Users of our service frequently ask us questions about the impact of child care on children. Considering the statistics on child care utilization, this same question is likely asked by countless others as well. In 1997, 65% of mothers with children under age 6 were in the work force, as were 77% of mothers of school-age children, according to the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. In their State of America's Children Yearbook 1998, the Children's Defense Fund reports that 13 million children- including 6 million infants and toddlers-are in child care every day.

What do we know about the quality of care arrangements and outcomes for children in those arrangements?

Over the past 15 years, a number of studies have examined the effects of child care quality on children's development. The encouraging news from the various studies is that a significant correlation exists between program quality and outcomes for children (Frede, 1995). Outcomes related to quality in child care include cooperative play, sociability, creativity, ability to solve social conflicts, self control, and language and cognitive development. Early findings from a longitudinal study supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) indicate that quality child care in the early years is associated with better mother-child interaction.

In their synthesis of the research on child care quality, "Are They in Any Real Danger? What Research Does-and Doesn't-Tell Us about Child Care Quality and Children's Well-Being," Love, Schochet, and Meckstroth (1996) state that the "preponderance of evidence supports the conclusion of a substantial positive relationship between child care quality and child well being." The authors indicate that they found "no detrimental effects of infants' attachment with their mothers as long as mothers provide adequate attention to infants at home." NICHD study investigators report a similar finding. In their early data which evaluated infants up to15 months of age, they found that "child care, in and of itself, neither adversely affects, nor promotes, the security of children's attachment to their mothers at the 15 month age point, provided the children were already receiving relatively sensitive care from their mothers."

What constitutes quality in child care?

Child care is not a single, monolithic entity. It takes many shapes and forms and has many features. Much of what has been published previously about quality in child care has focused on structural features, such as the number of children per adult, group sizes, and caregiver/teacher qualifications (Whitebook, Howes, & Phillips, 1989; NICHD Network, 1996). As research has become more sophisticated, it is clear that these structural features alone do not determine quality, but rather provide the context in which good-quality practices are more likely to occur. Features such as the responsiveness of the caregiver, individualization of care, language used in the classroom, and the appropriateness of learning activities are the key dimensions of quality that affect outcomes for children (Love, 1997; Love, Schochet, & Meckstroth, 1996).

These more human dimensions of care are more difficult for parents to observe and interpret. Child care programs and other support organizations such as Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies (CCR&Rs) can assist parents in the child care selection process. In their article "Maternal Guilt: Helping Mothers of Infants and Toddlers in Child Care," Mann and Thornburg (1998) encourage child care providers to assist parents who visit their programs in their search for appropriate care and to promote positive communication and rapport with parents who are enrolled in their programs. The more satisfaction with the provider, the less guilt a mother may feel, according to the authors.

In her unpublished paper for Bank Street College, "The Quality of the Child Care," Ellen Galinsky discusses the importance of the linkages between child care and the family. Exemplary child care arrangements support the family and serve, in effect, as a new extended family, Galinsky says.

What the research does not tell us is what levels of quality are needed to produce positive or detrimental outcomes for children. This is an important question in light of the research on quality in child care. Love, Schochet, and Meckstroth's (1996) review of the research on child care quality found that the quality of experience in child care centers and in family child care homes in the United States is mediocre. The following findings from three national studies confirm that quality of care is less than what most parents would want for their children:

1. Only 9% of the family child care homes in the Study of Children in Family Child Care and Relative Care (1994) rated as good quality; 56% of the homes rated as adequate/custodial; and 35% of the homes in the study rated as inadequate. Of the parents who looked for alternatives when selecting care, 65% believed they had no choices.

2. Staff turnover is high, ranging from 25% to 50% each year. This means that children are constantly adapting to new caregivers, and administrators are constantly orienting and training new staff (Whitebook, Howes, & Phillips, 1989; Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study Team, 1995).

3. Staff compensation, including wages and benefits, is exceptionally low. Child care staff are among the lowest paid of all classes of workers in the United States. Staff compensation is significantly related to the quality of care provided (Whitebook, Howes, & Phillips, 1989; Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study Team, 1995).

Is the quality of care provided the only variable influencing the effects of child care?

In her article "How Do Child Care and Maternal Employment Affect Children?," Ellen Galinsky (1986) talks about three experiences in addition to the quality of child care that make a positive or negative difference for children.

The mother's and/or family's attitude toward working affects the outcomes. According to Galinsky, if the mother doesn't believe she should be working, or the father is opposed to his wife's employment, then family stress can result which can affect the child. Conversely, if the mother and father feel that the mother's work is integral to the family's stability or her own life, then children can pick up a sense of pride and the feeling that "we're in this together."

Other studies have corroborated the impact of this conflict between employment/nonemployment and preference for working or staying home. In their study "Linking Employment to Attachment: The Mediating Effects of Maternal Separation Anxiety and Interactive Behavior," Stifter, Coulehan, and Fish (1993) found that if a mother holds the belief that only she should provide care to her infant and feels guilty about being apart from her infant and yet is employed outside the home, the conflict between her feelings and her work status may subsequently influence her behavior toward her infant.

A second variable influencing how well a child does in child care, according to Galinsky, are the conditions of the mother's and father's jobs. Tension with co-workers and the boss, lack of job control, and other severe job stresses can be carried home and affect the children.

Finally, Galinsky says that other stressful events within the family impact the child. Tensions at home, such as marital problems, can interact with job-related problems to affect the child. The way the parent copes can greatly reduce the negative effect of stress.

To summarize the preceding discussion, we can assume that good care is good for children, and conversely that bad care is bad for children; that the quality of care is highly variable; and that how a child fares in care depends on factors in addition to the quality of the care itself. Given all this, how should parents respond?

As with all decisions related to parenting, the decision to use child care should be given serious thought. A few questions to consider:

* Is your decision to use child care consistent or in conflict with your and your family's beliefs about what's good for children?

* Do other family members support your decision to either stay home or work outside the home?

* Do you have support at your workplace to balance your roles as parent and employee? Parenting responsibilities do not cease or diminish when you are at work.

* Do you have access to resources to help you select and maintain a good child care arrangement? Finding a good child care match can be a long and difficult process. Maintaining a healthy, open relationship with a child care program also takes effort.

The above points assume that there is a choice to use or not use child care. Many families do not have this option and must work out of economic necessity. For these families, it is imperative that high-quality and affordable child care options exist.

Good child care policy must address existing services for children so more parents can find and afford high-quality child care. But policy must also include efforts to allow parents to remain home with their young children when that is desired. There are roles for the public and private sectors and for individuals in improving conditions for young children. It takes the effort of individual parents within their respective places of employment to advocate for working conditions that allow parents to meet the demands of both home and work. It takes the effort of individual parents to work to maintain good relationships with child care programs and teachers when they use child care services. It also takes the vigilance of parents to question those environments that pose threats to children and to make program changes when warranted.

Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies (CCR&Rs) exist in communities around the United States to assist parents in many of these areas. CCR&Rs have resources on how to select a high-quality child care arrangement. They also often have resources on ways to maintain good relationships with child care programs and on how to talk to your employer about implementing family-supportive benefits.

To find your local CCR&R, contact the national Child Care Aware office at 800-424-2246.

Regardless of your individual decision about child care, we all benefit from a society that cares for and about children.

Sources

Children's Defense Fund. (1999). The state of America's children: Yearbook 1998. Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund.

Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study Team. (1995). Cost, quality, and child outcomes in child care centers public report. Denver: Economics Department, University of Colorado-Denver. ED 386 297.

Frede, E. (1995). The role of program quality in producing early childhood program benefits. Future of Children, 5(3), 115-132.

Galinsky, E. (1986, March). How do child care and maternal employment affect children? Child Care Information Exchange, pp. 19-23.

Galinsky, E. The quality of the child care (unpublished manuscript).

Galinsky, E.; Howes, C.; Kontos, S.; & Shinn, M. B. (1994). The study of children in family child care and relative care-Key findings and policy recommendations. Young Children, 50(1), 58-61. EJ 493 657.

Love, John M. (1997). Quality in child care centers. Early Childhood Research and Policy Briefs, 1(1). ED 417 827. Also available online at: http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~ncedl/PDFs/briefI1.pdf [1999, April 16].

Love, J. M.; Schochet, P. Z.; & Meckstroth, A. (1996). Are they in any real danger? What research does-and doesn't-tell us about child care quality and children's well-being. Plainsboro, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research. ED 415 030.

Mann, M. B., & Thornburg, K. R. (1998, July). Maternal guilt: Helping mothers of infants and toddlers in child care. Child Care Information Exchange, pp. 26-29.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). (1997, April). Results of NICHD study of early child care reported at Society for Research in Child Development Meeting (press release) [Online]. Available: http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/apr97/nichd-03.htm [1999, April 16].

NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1996). Characteristics of infant child care: Factors contributing to positive caregiving. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 11, 269-306.

Stifter, C. A.; Coulehan, C. M.; & Fish, M. (1993). Linking employment to attachment: The mediating effects of maternal separation anxiety and interactive behavior. Child Development, 64, 1451-1460. EJ 471 361.

Whitebook, M.; Howes, C.; & Phillips, D. (1989). Who cares? Child care teachers and the quality of care in America: Final report. National Child Care Staffing Study. Berkeley, CA: Child Care Employee Project. ED 323 031.