Theories on social learning, object relations, and identification are very useful in explaining how a child's identity (i.e., racial, religious, ethnic, class or gender identity) develops. These theories are also useful in understanding the similarities and differences in the development of identities in children from dominant groups and minority groups experiencing discrimination.

Object identification suggests that a child's identity is influenced by significant role models and relationships to which the child is consistently exposed in his or her environment (i.e., family, school, society and media). The child from the dominant group begins identity formation by observing what group is in power and by seeing that members of that group are like him or her (in terms of race, gender, religion, etc.). The child then assumes that he or she has the same rights as members of the group and will achieve accomplishments and power similar to those of group members. The ultimate result of the child's identity is a sense of positive self-esteem, confidence, worth, entitlements, and
goals.

The child from the minority group begins identity formation by observing what group is in power, seeing that others like him or her are not in positions of power and control, and observing and/or experiencing prejudice, discrimination, and exposure to stereotypes. The child assumes, therefore, that he or she: is like the members of the minority group; has the same limited rights; can achieve only the accomplishments, position, and status achieved by members of the minority group; and is not as good as those in power (and neither are others in his or her own group).
The minority child's identity affects his or her self-esteem, confidence, goals, worth, self-respect, entitlements, and expectations. The obvious result of negative group identities is an inferiority complex (i.e., low self-esteem, poor self-image, and lack of confidence, entitlements, worth, or rights). The inferiority is not the result of identifying or being a member of a minority group, but of exposure to discrimination, prejudices, and negative stereotypes about one's minority group. A child from a minority group that is celebrated, is held in esteem, or shares power and control with the dominant group can have an identity that is just as positive as that of a child from the dominant group.

In order to counteract the minority child's formation of negative identity, he or she must experience and be told that: members from his or her minority group can also attain positive achievements if given equal opportunities; the child and his or her minority group should have the same rights and entitlements as members of the dominant group; the child and his or her group are equal to and as good as any other group; stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination are wrong; and there is proof that the prejudices and stereotypes are untrue.

The last point allows the child to "see it in order to believe it." This may be the most difficult and challenging task to accomplish, if the minority child's group is not in position of power, control, and success in the child's environment. Alternatives may need to be employed, including exposing the child to historical figures and information about the group's accomplishments, capacities, values, and culture. The child also benefits from having his or her definition of success, strengths, and accomplishments re-framed so that they are not based on the standards and definitions of the dominant group (e.g., instead of highlighting individual accomplishments, valuing family commitment and group survival). Finally, the child can be exposed to environments in which his or her minority group is in a position of power and control, perhaps by using film and media to show other geographic areas.

In summary, children in a minority group (i.e., Asian, Latino, African or Native American) who experience prejudice or discrimination are subject to developing a negative racial identity due to identification with the stereotypes, prejudices, and negative images associated with that group. They can develop a negative racial identity through personal experiences and/or observations (e.g., in the community, school, or media). They must have their understanding of racial identity monitored and attended to in order to counteract perceptions of inferiority, and they should not be expected to develop a positive racial identity without positive support and reinforcements from family, role models, and the community.

What Parents Must Do

Parents of children involved in transracial adoptions should take the following actions in order to help their children develop positive racial identities:

A. Acknowledge the existence of prejudice, racism, and discrimination.

Adoptive parents must recognize that racism, prejudice, and discrimination exist, and that the parents themselves also have been victims and survivors of discrimination, prejudice, and racism. This enables parents to avoid denying and minimizing the child's experiences or excusing racist, prejudicial, or discriminatory behavior. By acknowledging being a victim and survivor, the parent is able to recognize the impact of inequities on others and elicit strategies for intervening on behalf of the child that are based on personal experience and knowledge.

The victimization of minority groups is fairly obvious. However, the victimization of members from the dominant culture and race may not be as obvious. Children in the dominant group are made victims by their inadvertent development of a superiority complex. In addition to shedding light on the inferiority complex, the concept of object identification can be used to understand the formation of the superiority complex: The child observes that those in power are racially the same as he or she is. Those not in power are observed to be of a different race or color. The child observes or is exposed to beliefs and practices that result in prejudice toward and discrimination against a minority race. Therefore, the child assumes that he or she, and his or her race, are better than the minority group.

By identifying with the dominant group, a child can develop a sense of superiority without being told he or she is better or having had any contact with a minority group. To counteract the superiority complex, the child must experience and be told that: minority groups can be successful and make positive achievements if given equal opportunities and resources; members of minority groups deserve equal rights, and that racism, prejudice, and discrimination are incorrect; members of minority groups are equal to members of the dominant group; and there are examples and proof to show that prejudices and stereotypes about minorities are untrue. Having developed an understanding of how their identities and their children's identities have been affected by racism, parents are prepared to act on that understanding.

B. Explain why the child's minority group is mistreated.

Parents must explain racism, prejudice, discrimination, and bigotry to their children; define these behaviors for them; and explain why they exist. The child's coping skills will be enhanced by understanding the behaviors beyond the point of thinking they are either "good" or "bad." When the child understands the origins of, functions of, and reasons for these behaviors, the child can increase his or her range of responses to include more than anger and/or retaliation.

C. Provide the child with a repertoire of responses to racial discrimination.

Having access to a range of responses to racial discrimination minimizes the child's feelings of helplessness. Children's racial identity is more positive when they perceive that they and their racial groups are empowered with choices, resources, and the ability to acquire and protect their rights. This repertoire of responses many include:

Selective confrontation or avoidance

Different styles of confrontation (e.g., passive, aggressive)

Individual, legal, institutional, or community resources and responses (e.g., grievances, law suits, NAACP involvement, protests)

Setting priorities and timing (when and when not to avoid or delay confronting issues)

Goal-oriented responses, rather than unplanned reactions

Institutional/organizational strategies such as positioning, coalitions, and compromising

D. Provide the child with role models and positive contact with his or her minority community.

Children from minority groups who are experiencing prejudice and discrimination need positive support and reinforcements from their families, role models, and communities in order to counteract negative racial identity and feelings of inferiority.

Parents of a race that is different from their children's are quite capable of modeling and helping the child develop identities such as gender and class. However, counteracting the racial identity projected by a racially conscious or discriminating society requires exposing the child to same-race role models and to his or her own culture and community. Parents should arrange for children to interact with their community, give them information on their history and culture, and otherwise provide an environment that includes their culture on a regular basis (for example, through exposure to art, music, food, religion, and same-race school experiences).

In order to carry out these actions, the parent must be or become comfortable with being a minority when interacting in the child's community and sharing the role of modeling with members of the child's race. Same-race contacts and experiences counteract negative stereotypes, teach the child how to implement the repertoire of responses, and provide respite from the difficulties of being in the minority group (e.g., unwelcome stares, the need to prove one's equality, etc.).

E. Prepare the child for discrimination.

Providing the child information on how his or her racial identity might be degraded helps the child develop better coping skills, methods of maintaining a positive self-image and identity, and confidence in his or her ability to cope and respond appropriately. Same-race role models may be a helpful source of information and preparation if the adoptive parent has not dealt with issues (e.g., double standards, slander, transracial dating, and gender issues) that the child's minority group commonly faces.

F. Teach the child the difference between responsibility to, and responsibility for, his or her minority group.

Teaching this difference reduces the likelihood that the child will feel embarrassed of, or need to apologize for, his or her racial identity or group and that the child will feel obligated to overcompensate or constantly prove his or her worth. Rather, the child is able to develop a commitment to both individual accomplishments, resources, and empowerment and those of his or her minority group.

The Clark Doll Test, conducted in 1958, suggests that children are aware of differences in race as early as four years old. The study also found that African American children became aware of stigma associated with race as early as seven years old. Although parents cannot stop the minority child's exposure to racial prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes, parents (adoptive, birth, same- or different-race) of any minority child must help develop the positive racial identity necessary to counteract the effects of perceived racial inferiority.

G. Advocate on behalf of the child's positive identity.

Parents must provide the child with an environment that is conducive to the formation of a positive identity. The parent should advocate for family, social, and educational experiences that are respectful of, reflective of, and sensitive to cultural diversity. Therefore, the parent needs to be prepared to correct or confront individual or institutional racism, prejudice, or discrimination that the child encounters.

The parent models for the child how to advocate for himself or herself. The child also sees and feels the parent's protection, loyalty, and commitment, which are essential elements in attachment and bonding. Confronting prejudice and discrimination is no longer optional for an adult once he or she adopts transracially.

Note1 These terms are used according to the following definitions: (1) dominant-the group that has power and control over the distribution of goods, services, rights, privileges, entitlements, and status; (2) minority-the group that is subject to the power, control, discretion, and distribution of goods and privileges by another group; and (3) group-i.e. racial, religious, political, or ethnic group, gender, the physically/emotionally challenged.